Energy Tax Policy: Issues in the 113th Congress – R43206

Molly F. Sherlock Specialist in Public Finance The scheduled expiration o ... http://p.ost.im/RbeFcK

Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies: Brief Overview of the President’s FY2014 Appropriations Request – R43142

Carol Hardy Vincent Specialist in Natural Resources Policy The Interior, ... http://p.ost.im/Rq4Q2V

Nanotechnology: A Policy Primer – RL34511

John F. Sargent, Jr. Specialist in Science and Technology Policy Nanoscal ... http://p.ost.im/RVAUvn

The U.S.-Japan Alliance – RL33740

Emma Chanlett-Avery Specialist in Asian Affairs Ian E. Rinehart Analyst i ... http://p.ost.im/RVwqkk

Green Infrastructure and Issues in Managing Urban Stormwater – R43131

Claudia Copeland Specialist in Resources and Environmental Policy For dec ... http://p.ost.im/RqNPNf

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Annual Fee on Health Insurers – R43225

Suzanne M. Kirchhoff Analyst in Health Care Financing The Patient Protect ... http://p.ost.im/RqvJAN

Arab League Boycott of Israel – RL33961

Martin A. Weiss Specialist in International Trade and Finance The Arab Le ... http://p.ost.im/RxhCX4

Defense: FY2014 Authorization and Appropriations – R43323

Pat Towell Coordinator Specialist in U.S. Defense Policy and Budget Presi ... http://p.ost.im/Rqb7YA

Legal Services Corporation: Background and Funding – RL34016

Carmen Solomon-Fears Specialist in Social Policy The Legal Services Corpo ... http://p.ost.im/RbBGQc

War in Afghanistan: Campaign Progress, Political Strategy, and Issues for Congress – R43196

Catherine Dale Specialist in International Security This is a critical ti ... http://p.ost.im/R48yfL

Nanotechnology: A Policy Primer - RL34511

John F. Sargent, Jr.

Specialist in Science and Technology Policy

Nanoscale science, engineering, and technology—commonly referred to collectively as nanotechnology—is believed by many to offer extraordinary economic and societal benefits. Congress has demonstrated continuing support for nanotechnology and has directed its attention primarily to three topics that may affect the realization of this hoped for potential: federal research and development (R&D) in nanotechnology; U.S. competitiveness; and environmental, health, and safety (EHS) concerns. This report provides an overview of these topics—which are discussed in more detail in other CRS reports—and two others: nanomanufacturing and public understanding of and attitudes toward nanotechnology.

The development of this emerging field has been fostered by significant and sustained public investments in nanotechnology R&D. Nanotechnology R&D is directed toward the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers. At this size, the properties of matter can differ in fundamental and potentially useful ways from the properties of individual atoms and molecules and of bulk matter. Since the launch of the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in 2000 through FY2013, Congress has appropriated approximately $18 billion for nanotechnology R&D. President Obama has requested $1.7 billion in NNI funding for FY2014. More than 60 nations have established similar programs. In 2010, total annual global public R&D investments reached an estimated $8.2 billion, complemented by an estimated private sector investment of $9.6 billion. Data on economic outputs used to assess competitiveness in mature technologies and industries, such as revenues and market share, are not available for assessing nanotechnology. Alternatively, data on inputs (e.g., R&D expenditures) and non-financial outputs (e.g., scientific papers, patents) may provide insight into the current U.S. position and serve as bellwethers of future competitiveness. By these criteria, the United States appears to be the overall global leader in nanotechnology, though some believe the U.S. lead may not be as large as it was for previous emerging technologies.

Some research has raised concerns about the safety of nanoscale materials. There is general agreement that more information on EHS implications is needed to protect the public and the environment; to assess and manage risks; and to create a regulatory environment that fosters prudent investment in nanotechnology-related innovation. Nanomanufacturing—the bridge between nanoscience and nanotechnology products—may require the development of new technologies, tools, instruments, measurement science, and standards to enable safe, effective, and affordable commercial-scale production of nanotechnology products. Public understanding and attitudes may also affect the environment for R&D, regulation, and market acceptance of products incorporating nanotechnology.

In 2003, Congress enacted the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act (P.L. 108-153) providing a legislative foundation for some of the activities of the NNI, addressing concerns, establishing programs, assigning agency responsibilities, and setting authorization levels. Efforts to reauthorize the act have been unsuccessful. As of the date of this report, no reauthorization legislation had been introduced in the 113th Congress. In October 2013, the ranking member of the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology circulated a draft reauthorization of the America COMPETES Act that included a “Reauthorization of the National Nanotechnology Initiative” subtitle. The majority version of the 2013 America COMPETES Act reauthorization bill does not include a nanotechnology reauthorization provision.

Date of Report: December 16, 2013

Number of Pages: 17
Order Number: RL34511

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Nanotechnology: A Policy Primer - RL34511

Arab League Boycott of Israel - RL33961

Martin A. Weiss

Specialist in International Trade and Finance

The Arab League, an umbrella organization comprising 22 Middle Eastern and African countries and entities, has maintained an official boycott of Israeli companies and Israeli-made goods since the founding of Israel in 1948. The boycott is administered by the Damascus-based Central Boycott Office, a specialized bureau of the Arab League.

The boycott has three tiers. The primary boycott prohibits citizens of an Arab League member from buying from, selling to, or entering into a business contract with either the Israeli government or an Israeli citizen. The secondary boycott extends the primary boycott to any entity world-wide that does business in Israel. A blacklist of global firms that engage in business with Israel is maintained by the Central Boycott Office, and disseminated to Arab League members. The tertiary boycott prohibits an Arab League member and its nationals from doing business with a company that deals with companies that have been blacklisted by the Arab League.

Since the boycott is sporadically applied and ambiguously enforced, its impact, measured by capital or revenue denied to Israel by companies adhering to the boycott, is difficult to measure. The effect of the primary boycott appears limited since intra-regional trade and investment are small. Enforcement of the secondary and tertiary boycotts has decreased over time, reducing their effect. Thus, it appears that since intra-regional trade is small, and that the secondary and tertiary boycotts are not aggressively enforced, the boycott may not currently have an extensive effect on the Israeli economy.

Despite the lack of economic impact on either Israeli or Arab economies, the boycott remains of strong symbolic importance to all parties. The U.S. government has often been at the forefront of international efforts to end the boycott and its enforcement. Despite U.S. efforts, however, many Arab League countries continue to support the boycott’s enforcement. U.S. legislative action related to the boycott dates from 1959 and includes multiple statutory provisions expressing U.S. opposition to the boycott, usually in foreign assistance legislation. In 1977, Congress passed laws making it illegal for U.S. companies to cooperate with the boycott and authorizing the imposition of civil and criminal penalties against U.S. violators. U.S. companies are required to report to the Department of Commerce any requests to comply with the Arab League Boycott.

The current list of countries that request U.S. companies to participate or agree to participate in boycotts prohibited under U.S. law includes Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

This report provides background information on the boycott and U.S. efforts to end its enforcement. More information on Israel is contained in CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti.

Date of Report: December 19, 2013

Number of Pages: 10
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Arab League Boycott of Israel - RL33961

Proposals to Eliminate Public Financing of Presidential Campaigns - R41604

R. Sam Garrett

Specialist in American National Government

There is a consensus that the presidential public financing program is antiquated and offers insufficient benefits to attract the most competitive candidates. No major candidate accepted public funds in 2012. In 2008, then-candidate Barack Obama became the first person, since the public financing program’s inception, elected President without accepting any public funds. For some, these developments signal an urgent need to save the public campaign financing program that has existed since the 1970s; for others, they suggest that the program is unnecessary.

Eight bills introduced in the 113th Congress would terminate all or parts of the program. These measures—H.R. 94, H.R. 95, H.R. 260, H.R. 270, H.R. 1724, H.R. 2019, H.R. 2857, and S. 118—are discussed in the next section of this report. The 112th Congress also considered terminating the program; two bills passed the House but died in the Senate. On January 26, 2011, the House passed (239-160) H.R. 359, sponsored by Representative Cole, to repeal public financing of presidential campaigns and nominating conventions. In addition, on December 1, 2011, the House passed (235-190) H.R. 3463. The latter bill, sponsored by Representative Harper, proposed to terminate the public financing program (in addition to eliminating the Election Assistance Commission) and transfer remaining amounts to the general fund of the U.S. Treasury for use in deficit reduction.

This report provides a brief policy overview and raises potential issues for congressional consideration. Readers are encouraged to consult the following CRS products for additional information.

CRS Report RL34534, Public Financing of Presidential Campaigns: Overview and Analysis, by R. Sam Garrett;

CRS Report RL34630, Federal Funding of Presidential Nominating Conventions: Overview and Policy Options, by R. Sam Garrett and Shawn Reese; and

CRS Report R41542, The State of Campaign Finance Policy: Recent Developments and Issues for Congress, by R. Sam Garrett (the “Public Financing Issues” section).

For a discussion of constitutional considerations, which are beyond the scope of this report and those noted above, readers may consult CRS Report RL30669, The Constitutionality of Campaign Finance Regulation: Buckley v. Valeo and Its Supreme Court Progeny, by L. Paige Whitaker.

Date of Report: December 9, 2013

Number of Pages: 7
Order Number: R41604

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Proposals to Eliminate Public Financing of Presidential Campaigns - R41604

Recent Changes to Federal Employee Pay and Retirement Benefits in Support of Deficit Reduction - M-

Congressional Research Service

TO: Office of Senator Benjamin Cardin

This memorandum responds to your request for a summary of changes to the pay and retirement benefits of federal employees in support of deficit reduction. In particular, you requested information on three recent changes in these policy areas:

1. the three-year freeze in federal salaries;

2. the federal pay consequences of furloughs due to the sequester under the Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA; P.L. 112-25, as amended); and

3. the changes to federal retirement contributions and benefits enacted under the Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012(P.L. 112-96).

This memorandum summarizes these changes and, where available, provides existing, nonpartisan cost estimates of their budgetary effects from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO).

Some of the information in this memorandum is drawn from publicly available sources and is of general interest to Congress. As such, all or part of this information may be provided in memoranda or reports for general distribution to Congress. Your confidentiality as a requester will be preserved in any case.

Date of Report: December 6, 2013

Number of Pages: 6
Order Number: M-120613

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Recent Changes to Federal Employee Pay and Retirement Benefits in Support of Deficit Reduction - M-

South Africa: Politics, Economy, and U.S. Relations - R43130

Nicolas Cook

Specialist in African Affairs

South Africa is a multi-racial, majority black southern African country of nearly 52 million. It held its first universal suffrage elections in 1994, after a transition from white minority rule under apartheid, a system of state-enforced racial segregation and socioeconomic discrimination. South Africa entered a period of mourning in late 2013, following the passing of its first post-apartheid president, Nelson Mandela, who is viewed as the founding father of today’s nonracial South African democratic system. Due to its political, trade, and investment ties across Africa and its active role within the African Union, South Africa is influential regionally. It is viewed as a U.S. strategic partner in Africa, despite periodic foreign policy differences. In mid-2013, President Obama traveled to South Africa after visiting Senegal, prior to a visit to Tanzania. The trip centered on U.S.-African partnerships in the areas of trade and investment, development, democracy and youth leadership development, and peace and security. Key issues addressed in South Africa included bilateral political and trade and investment ties, development cooperation, and shared U.S.-South African aims regarding conflict mitigation and development across Africa.

Congress has long been engaged with South Africa, notably during the anti-apartheid struggle, and with regard to post-apartheid socioeconomic development efforts, a key focus of bilateral ties. Since 1992, South Africa has been a leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid, mostly devoted to addressing HIV/AIDS and other health challenges. Aid oversight has drawn the bulk of South Africa-related congressional attention in recent years. U.S. policy makers are also increasingly focused on efforts to strengthen already growing U.S.-South African trade and investment ties. Other key areas of bilateral engagement include security cooperation and an ongoing U.S.-South African Strategic Dialogue. Established in 2010, the Dialogue centers on health, education, food security, law enforcement, trade, investment, and energy, among other issues.

South Africa has the largest, most diversified, and highly industrialized economy in Africa. It has enjoyed moderate economic growth in most recent years. Average per capita incomes and access to education have grown across racial groups, notably for blacks. Despite post-apartheid national socioeconomic gains, South Africa remains a highly unequal society with respect to wealth and income distribution and access to jobs, social services, utilities, and land. Most blacks are poor, and average black incomes are far smaller than those of the historically privileged white minority. Blacks also suffer very high unemployment rates (36% in 2011), and have far less access to education. Shortages of quality housing, utilities, and social services in townships—the vast, high-density housing settlements where many of the poor live—spur ongoing social and political tensions. Other key problems include public corruption and widespread violent crime. Vigilante justice and mob violence is not uncommon, and heavy-handed police tactics sometimes result in human rights abuses. South Africa also suffers high rates of HIV/AIDS.

In late 2012, the governing African National Congress (ANC) party, despite some reported internal divisions, reelected as its president Jacob Zuma, ahead of national elections in 2014. Zuma was elected to his first term as president of South Africa by the country’s parliament in 2009. The ANC government faces the substantial challenges noted above, along with others, including labor unrest, rising dissatisfaction within key labor constituencies, and dissatisfaction among youths. Youth populations face particularly high jobless rates and may lack older generations’ continuing allegiance and gratitude to the ANC for helping to end apartheid. To address these diverse challenges, the government is investing billions of dollars to upgrade infrastructure and improve public service delivery, but is likely to face continuing challenges in meeting popular expectations.

Date of Report: December 19, 2013

Number of Pages: 31
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South Africa: Politics, Economy, and U.S. Relations - R43130

Small Business Management and Technical Assistance Training Programs - R41352

Robert Jay Dilger

Senior Specialist in American National Government

The Small Business Administration (SBA) has provided technical and managerial assistance “to small-business concerns, by advising and counseling on matters in connection with government procurement and on policies, principles and practices of good management” since it began operations in 1953. Initially, the SBA provided its own small business management and technical assistance training programs. Over time, the SBA has relied increasingly on third parties to provide that training.

Congressional interest in the SBA’s management and technical assistance training programs has increased in recent years, primarily because these programs are viewed as a means to assist small businesses in creating and retaining jobs. Congress recommended that the SBA provide its management and training programs $164.848 million in FY2013. After sequestration, a required 0.2% reduction in the SBA’s budget, and account transfers, the SBA provided its management and training programs $149.783 million in FY2013 (a reduction of $15.065 million or 9.1%).

These programs fund about “14,000 resource partners,” including 63 lead small business development centers (SBDCs) and more than 900 SBDC local outreach locations, 108 women’s business centers (WBCs), and 354 chapters of the mentoring program, SCORE. The SBA reports that more than 1 million aspiring entrepreneurs and small business owners receive training from an SBA-supported resource partner each year. The SBA argues that these programs contribute “to the long-term success of these businesses and their ability to grow and create jobs.”

The Department of Commerce also provides management and technical assistance training for small businesses. For example, its Minority Business Development Agency provides training to minority business owners to assist them in obtaining contracts and financial awards.

A recurring theme at congressional hearings concerning the SBA’s management and technical assistance training programs has been the perceived need to improve program efficiency by eliminating duplication of services or increasing cooperation and coordination both within and among SCORE, WBCs, and SBDCs. For example, the House Committee on Small Business has argued that the SBA’s various management and technical assistance training programs should be “folded into the mission of the SBDC program or their responsibilities should be taken over by other agencies” because they “overlap each other and duplicate the educational services provided by other agencies.” Congress has also explored ways to improve the SBA’s measurement of the programs’ effectiveness.

This report examines the historical development of federal small business management and technical assistance training programs; describes their current structures, operations, and budgets; and assesses their administration and oversight and the measures used to determine their effectiveness. It also discusses several bills introduced during the 111th and 112th Congresses that would have authorized changes to the SBA’s management and technical assistance training programs in an effort to improve their performance and oversight, including S. 3442, the SUCCESS Act of 2012, and S. 3572, the Restoring Tax and Regulatory Certainty to Small Businesses Act of 2012. In addition, during the 113th Congress, S. 415, the Small Business Disaster Reform Act of 2013, and its companion bill in the House, H.R. 1974, would authorize SBDCs to provide assistance to small businesses outside of the state, without regard to geographic proximity, if the small business is located in a presidentially declared major disaster area.

Date of Report: December 16, 2013

Number of Pages: 35
Order Number: R41352

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Small Business Management and Technical Assistance Training Programs - R41352

Nominations with Cloture Motions, 2009 to the present - M-112113

Richard S. Beth and Elizabeth Rybicki

Specialists on Congress and the Legislative Process

This memorandum provides information on nominations that have been subject to cloture motions during the 113^thCongress (through November 20, 2013).The table below presents information in the same format as Table 6 of CRS Report RL32878, Cloture Attempts on Nominations: Data and Historical Development, by Richard S. Beth, and can be used to update the data in that report. It also responds to multiple congressional inquiries for a comparison of cloture action taken on all nominations and cloture action taken on nominations submitted in the 111^th(2009-2010), 112th(2011-2012) and 113^thCongress (through November 20, 2013).

Date of Report: November 21, 2013

Number of Pages: 3
Order Number: M-112113

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Nominations with Cloture Motions, 2009 to the present - M-112113

Federal Employees' Retirement System: Benefits and Financing - 98-810

Katelin P. Isaacs

Analyst in Income Security

Most civilian federal employees who were hired before 1984 are covered by the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). Federal employees hired in 1984 or later are covered by the Federal Employees’ Retirement System (FERS). Both CSRS and FERS require participants to contribute toward the cost of their pensions through a payroll tax. Employees who are covered by CSRS contribute 7.0% of pay to the Civil Service Retirement and Disability Fund (CSRDF). They do not pay Social Security taxes or earn Social Security benefits. Employees enrolled in FERS and first hired before 2013 contribute 0.8% of their pay to the CSRDF. Employees enrolled in FERS and first hired in 2013 or later contribute 3.1% of pay to the CSRDF. All employees enrolled in FERS contribute 6.2% of wages up to the Social Security taxable wage base ($113,700 in 2013) to the Social Security trust fund.

The minimum retirement age (MRA) under CSRS is 55 for workers who have at least 30 years of service. The FERS MRA is 55 for employees born before 1948. The MRA for employees born between 1953 and 1964 is 56, increasing to the age of 57 for those born in 1970 or later. Both FERS and CSRS allow retirement with an unreduced pension at the age of 60 for employees with 20 or more years of service and at the age of 62 for employees with at least 5 years of service.

The Thrift Savings Plan (TSP) is a retirement savings plan similar to the 401(k) plans provided by many employers in the private sector. In 2013, employees covered under either CSRS or FERS can contribute up to $17,500 to the TSP. Employees aged 50 and older can contribute an additional $5,500 to the TSP. Employees under FERS receive employer matching contributions of up to 5% of pay from the federal agency by which they are employed. Federal workers covered by CSRS also can contribute to the TSP, but they receive no matching contributions from their employing agencies.

The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) estimates the cost of CSRS to be an amount equal to 26.0% of employee pay. The federal government pays 19.0% of this amount and the other 7.0% is paid by employees. OPM estimates the cost of the FERS basic annuity at an amount equal to 12.7% of pay. For FERS employees first hired before 2013, the federal government contributes 11.9% of this amount and the other 0.8% is paid by employees. For FERS employees first hired in 2013 or later, the federal government contributes 9.6% of this amount and employees pay the remaining 3.1%. There are three other employer costs for employees under FERS. Both the employer and employee pay Social Security taxes equal to 6.2% of pay up to the maximum taxable amount; agencies automatically contribute an amount equal to 1% of employee pay to the TSP; and agencies make matching contributions to the TSP equal to up to 4% of pay.

At the end of FY2011, the CSRDF had an unfunded liability of $761.5 billion, consisting of a $741.4 billion deficit for CSRS and a $20.1 billion deficit for FERS. Although the civil service trust fund has an unfunded liability, it is not in danger of becoming insolvent. OPM projects that the balance of the CSRDF will continue to grow through at least 2080, at which point it will hold assets equal to more than 5.3 times total payroll and about 20 times total annual benefit payments.

This report also summarizes relevant legislation in the 113th Congress that would make significant changes to federal benefits and financing, including H.J.Res. 59, S. 18, S. 1678, and H.R. 3639.

Date of Report: December 20, 2013

Number of Pages: 22
Order Number: 98-810

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Federal Employees' Retirement System: Benefits and Financing - 98-810

Estimating the ”Economic Reach” of FERC - M-080113

Paul Parfomak

Specialist in Energy and Infrastructure

Attached is an analysis estimating the economic significance of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, conducted by the nonpartisan Congressional Research Service.  

The goal of the report is to provide at least a rough metric of the scope and magnitude of FERC’s “economic reach.” Although there are multiple ways of addressing this question and even defining this term, computing the value of the volumes of commodities that flow through FERC-regulated wires and pipes is a reasonable middle-ground methodology. Using this approach, CRS concluded that the total value approximates $435 billion each year. This sum is the equivalent to approximately just under 3% of the gross domestic product.

Date of Report: August 1, 2013

Number of Pages: 9
Order Number: M-080113

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Estimating the ”Economic Reach” of FERC - M-080113

Expiring Unemployment Insurance Provisions - R41508

Katelin P. Isaacs

Analyst in Income Security

Several key provisions related to extended federal unemployment benefits are temporary and, therefore, scheduled to expire:

• Authorization for the temporary Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08) program is scheduled to expire the week ending on or before January 1, 2014 (i.e., December 28, 2013; or December 29, 2013, in New York state). 


• The temporary 100% federal financing of the Extended Benefit (EB) program ends December 31, 2013. 


• The temporary option for states to use three-year lookbacks as part of their EB triggers expires the week ending on or before December 31, 2013. 

Once these federal unemployment provisions expire, only regular, state-financed unemployment benefits from the Unemployment Compensation (UC) program will generally be available. In most states, UC provides up to 26 weeks of benefits.

This report describes the consequences of these expirations for the financing and availability of unemployment benefits in states.

This report also summarizes current legislative proposals to extend these expiring provisions:

• Among other provisions, H.R. 2821, the American Jobs Act of 2013, would extend these temporary unemployment insurance provisions for two additional years (i.e., through December 2015). 


• H.R. 3546 and S. 1747, the House and Senate versions of the Emergency Unemployment Compensation Extension Act of 2013, would extend the expiring unemployment insurance provisions for an additional year (i.e., through December 2014). 


• S. 1797, also titled the Emergency Unemployment Compensation Extension Act of 2013, would extend the expiring unemployment insurance provisions through December 2014, while also permitting any state that terminated a EUC08 agreement in 2013 to reenter into an agreement to pay EUC08 benefits.

Date of Report: December 13, 2013

Number of Pages: 9
Order Number: R41508

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Expiring Unemployment Insurance Provisions - R41508